Drones: Robot eyes on racialized migrant bodies

A joint Border Forensics and Human Rights Watch investigation revealed that the Libyan Coast Guard (LCG) pull-backs are facilitated by plane drone surveillance provided Frontex (the European Agency) to LCG about migrant boats (Sunderland & Pezzani, 2022). Migrants who returned Libya enslaved, extorted, tortured, raped killed (UNHRC, 2023); among them, Daoud (pseudonym), a student activist from Darfur, Sudan explained, ‘When I was in Libya, like 17th century, not present’.1 Drones increasingly used migration control operations gaining new functions with integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI). Nevertheless, there has been limited critical social scientific engagement around connections between drones migration. This commentary situates within trend militarization controls, which carries significant surveillance, ethical human rights implications, particularly for racialized migrants.2 have emerged within, significantly accelerated, process entails only transfer military technology but also rationalities target migrants (e.g. Csernatoni, 2018). Pioneered US post-9/11 context, heavily deployed warzones militaries surveil, kill destroy enemy targets. They later transferred civilian applications, including urban policing control. Even though planes long control,3 preferred their cost-effectiveness, speed, ability operate difficult weather, vast reach into terrain low risk they pose operators Lutterbeck, high levels interoperability, can connect other systems (such as satellites, databases ground systems) provide real-time video streaming movements various optical thermal sensors, radars, thus providing ‘situational awareness’. Following militarized logic, typically results targeting ‘threats’ along borderzones, informing actors pre-empting entry, contributing neutralization ‘threat’ migrants/migration. The data is ‘risk’ assessment understand journeys prepare future pre-emptive strategies. ‘verticality’ (Weizman, 2007) resembles Foucault's well-known metaphor Panopticon tower model modern disciplines subjects under its hierarchical gaze (Foucault, 1991). But unlike Panopticon, mobile dispersed (or ‘liquid’, see Bauman Lyon, 2013), less concerned subtle forms discipline more brutally sorting forcing them towards ‘death worlds’ (Mbembe, 2019: 92). And surveillance? From where killing civilians defined mere ‘collateral damage’ border enslavement ‘rescue’, those denied even victim status: populations Global South/East. To build on Daoud's observation, combine 17th-century racial violence 21st-century technology. Drone follows footsteps another major technology: fingerprint biometrics. Driven Social Darwinist racist ideology, fingerprinting born British colonial rule India identify, differentiate populations. It generalized form identification general population, still retaining core (see Pugliese, 2010). Similar patterns subjugation observed political economy drones. uses Heron Hermes produced Israeli companies Occupied Palestinian Territories (MiddleEastEye, 2022), become ‘laboratory testing’ (Zureik, 2016: 132). These Central Mediterranean facilitate Africa, reproducing pattern (neo)colonial violence. Militarized grave implications. International law establishes duty rescue people distress bring safe place (SAR, 1979; SOLAS, 1974; UNCLOS, 1982). Search-and-rescue (SAR) rationales often authorities frame humanitarian technologies deflect attention violent militaristic origins Loukinas, 2022: 104). In practice, exposes further harm through interceptions returns (which strategically framed ‘sea rescues’ – Klein, 2021) unsafe locations Libya) rather than ensuring safety. fact, context pull-backs, be starting point chain violations lead enslavement, torture, rape death migrants. akin historical ‘slave patrols’ existed detect return runaway slaves captivity Browne, 22–24). Furthermore, very existence contributes tragedies. technologies, push find riskier routes, at hands smugglers. Computerized vision reduces rich complexity subjectivities, complex life histories, ideas, identities, belongings, religious beliefs, hopes, ambitions, occupations, skills, pains, fears, sufferings many qualities categories ‘risky subjects’ or distance. dehumanization explained Bauman's concept adiaphorization, making acts, processes ‘measurable against technical (purpose-oriented procedural) moral values’ (Bauman, 1989: 216). value measured capabilities height, reach, and, recently, AI-enabled autonomy) success objective control, dehumanizing effects. physical distance surveilled migrants, sharing internal external units intervention, adds distancing abdication responsibility consequences surveillance. Some assassination report ‘perpetration-induced traumatic stress’ because witness suffering actions high-resolution screens distances (Pinchevski, 68). field, pass information (internal external) may detention). As war drones, interpretation decision how act involves several actors, such senior officers, legal advisors, intelligence analysts state officials. Intervention might justify claiming ‘simply’ following orders, denying any personal routinizing (depriving quality), typical defence strategies ‘crimes obedience’ (Kelman Hamilton, 1989). refugee camps, Greek Islands (known ‘hotspot’ camps), justification will ‘prevent violence’ (Emmanouilidou Fallon, 2021). insecurity situation impacting hotspots indeed noted researchers RRE, what causes this insecurity, it simply eliminated drones? deeper look field would show degrading camp conditions overcrowding, lack hygiene, adequate food, medical care support, combined indefinite waits asylum decisions cause psychological constitute root these camps (Topak, 2020). an interview, Mustafa living Moria hotspot Lesvos Island shortly before burned down, stated, ‘Everyone bad mood psychologically, start fighting no reason almost’ (cited Topak, 2020: 1869). Promoting ‘technological fixes’ without addressing brings violating basic privacy waiting. expanding borderzones inside territories: inner cities subjugate telling security officials surveil Black Lives Matter demonstrators protesting systemic racism police brutality (NYT, AI integrated controls Aradau, 2023; Molnar, Ozkul, 2023, volume), additional consequences. initiatives (Frontex, 2021), tested ‘autonomous swarms’ Turkey (Monroy, already ‘augment[s] identify track targets’ 2021: 121), promises make ‘fully autonomously’ ‘in challenging environments need operators’ 35, 121). ‘Drone refer scores autonomous communicating manoeuvring each achieve objective, surveilling, profiling identifying, tracking ‘threats’. drone-assisted condemn near-death situations, if indirectly. essentially different Greece-Turkey borders (Evros region Aegean Sea), swarms tested. spaces push-backs consequent abuses deaths 2014). does alter rationale borders/drones supplements capabilities. algorithms reproduce categorize ‘high risk’ Jefferson, 2020; volume). Thus, automatically due movement patterns, objects carry, simple presence borderzones). could followed actors; full automated interventions prevent passage). Both scenarios complicate questions ethics, deepen adiaphorization Yet again, racializing outcomes do autonomous. interpreting perceive reality militarized-racialized lens, algorithmically mediated, ‘threats’; experience brutal Libya. Twenty-first-century being seen century. robot eye operates remotely far morality. appreciate support Canada's Sciences Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) research assistantship Roberta Medina. opinions expressed Commentary author necessarily reflect views Editors, Editorial Board, Organization Migration nor John Wiley Sons.